Сленг и современный разговорный английский язык

Муниципальная общеобразовательная средняя школа № 41.

Тема:

«Сленг и современный разговорный английский язык»

Выполнила:                                                                                  

Пенкина Д.С.

Учитель:                                                                                      

Першина Т.В.

Братск 2006

Contents.

I.                    Introduction. – 3

II.                 Main part.

1.       Definition. – 4

2.       Creators of slang. – 6

3.       Linguistic processes forming slang. – 7

4.       Uses of slang. – 8

5.       Attitudes toward slang. – 8

6.       Position in the Language. – 8

III.              Appendix.

1.       «Sorry» and «excuse me». – 10

2.       «Canteen» and «rock». – 10

3.       «Wanna» and «gonna». – 10

4.       «Yak» and «yuck». – 10

5.       «Good bye» and «see you». – 10

6.       «To talk back, into, out, down». – 10

7.       «Krazy», «kombat», «kanion» and «magik». – 11

8.       «Item» and «stuff». – 11

IV.             Conclusion. – 12

V.                Dictionary.

1.       Dictionary of youth slang 1960-70’s. – 13

2.       Dictionary of modern British slang. – 14

VI. Bibliography. – 20

I. Introduction.

My graduation paper is devoted to the study of the topic “SLANG”. What is it?

Slang, informal, nonstandard words and phrases, generally shorter lived than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups) and with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but the borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and some writers use the terms cant, argot, and jargon in a general way to include all the foregoing meanings.

Если представить современный American English в виде крупного города, а слова – в виде людей, живущих в нем, то сленгом будет бедный квартал ( skid row, как называют такие трущобы американцы ), но отнюдь не резервация , огороженная колючей проволокой, откуда не вырваться.

II. Main part.

1. Definition

Main Entry: 1slang
Pronunciation: 'sla[ng]
Function: noun
Etymology: origin unknown
Date: 1756
1 : language peculiar to a particular group: as a : ARGOT b : JARGON 2
2 : an informal nonstandard vocabulary composed typically of coinages, arbitrarily changed words, and extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech
- slang adjective
- slang·i·ly /'sla[ng]-&-lE/ adverb
- slang·i·ness /'sla[ng]-E-n&s/ noun
- slangy /'sla[ng]-E/ adjective

Main Entry: 2slang
Date: 1828
intransitive senses : to use slang or vulgar abuse
transitive senses : to abuse with harsh or coarse language

Main Entry: rhyming slang
Function: noun
Date: 1859
: slang in which the word intended is replaced by a word or phrase that rhymes with it (as loaf of bread for head) or the first part of the phrase (as loaf for head)

Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary

Slang

nonstandard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties.

Slang consists of the words and expressions that have escaped from the cant, jargon and argot (and to a lesser extent from dialectal, nonstandard, and taboo speech) of specific subgroups of society so that they are known and used by an appreciable percentage of the general population, even though the words and expressions often retain some associations with the subgroups that originally used and popularized them. Thus, slang is a middle ground for words and expressions that have become too popular to be any longer considered as part of the more restricted categories, but that are not yet (and may never become) acceptable or popular enough to be considered informal or standard. (Compare the slang "hooker" and the standard "prostitute.")

Under the terms of such a definition, "cant" comprises the restricted, non-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, age, ethnic, hobby, or special-interest group. (Cool, uptight, do your thing were youth cant of the late 1960s before they became slang.) "Jargon" is defined as the restricted, technical, or shoptalk words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, trade, scientific, artistic, criminal, or other group. (Finals used by printers and by students, Fannie May by money men, preemie by obstetricians were jargon before they became slang.) "Argot" is merely the combined cant and jargon of thieves, criminals, or any other underworld group. (Hit used by armed robbers; scam by corporate confidence men.)

Slang fills a necessary niche in all languages, occupying a middle ground between the standard and informal words accepted by the general public and the special words and expressions known only to comparatively small social subgroups. It can serve as a bridge or a barrier, either helping both old and new words that have been used as "insiders' " terms by a specific group of people to enter the language of the general public or, on the other hand, preventing them from doing so. Thus, for many words, slang is a testing ground that finally proves them to be generally useful, appealing, and acceptable enough to become standard or informal. For many other words, slang is a testing ground that shows them to be too restricted in use, not as appealing as standard synonyms, or unnecessary, frivolous, faddish, or unacceptable for standard or informal speech. For still a third group of words and expressions, slang becomes not a final testing ground that either accepts or rejects them for general use but becomes a vast limbo, a permanent holding ground, an area of speech that a word never leaves. Thus, during various times in history, American slang has provided cowboy, blizzard, okay, racketeer, phone, gas, and movie for standard or informal speech. It has tried and finally rejected conbobberation (disturbance), krib (room or apartment), lucifer (match), tomato (girl), and fab (fabulous) from standard or informal speech. It has held other words such as bones (dice), used since the 14th century, and beat it (go away), used since the 16th century, in a permanent grasp, neither passing them on to standard or informal speech nor rejecting them from popular, long-term use.

All languages, countries, and periods of history have slang. This is true because they all have had words with varying degrees of social acceptance and popularity.

All segments of society use some slang, including the most educated, cultivated speakers and writers. In fact, this is part of the definition of slang. For example, George Washington used redcoat (British soldier); Winston Churchill used booze (liquor); and Lyndon B. Johnson used cool it (calm down, shut up).

The same linguistic processes are used to create and popularize slang as are used to create and popularize all other words. That is, all words are created and popularized in the same general ways; they are labeled slang only according to their current social acceptance, long after creation and popularization.

Slang is not the language of the underworld, nor does most of it necessarily come from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Thus, in one period of American slang, frontiersmen, cowboys, hunters, and trappers may have been the main source; during some parts of the 1920s and '30s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the main source; at other times, the vocabulary of jazz musicians, soldiers, or college students may have been the main source.

To fully understand slang, one must remember that a word's use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Thus, some standard words of William Shakespeare's day are found only in certain modern-day British dialects or in the dialect of the southern United States. Words that are taboo in one era (e.g., stomach, thigh) can become accepted, standard words in a later era. Language is dynamic, and at any given time hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular.

Никто не может дать четкого и более-менее точного определения сленга. Все определения типа «язык низших слоев…», «язык беспутных грамотеев…», «специфический жаргон определенной группы людей…» не выдерживают никакой критики. Остановимся на следующем определении: «Сленг – это все то, что не попадает в учебники».

2. Creators of slang.

Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, and dick for policemen were not created by officers of the law. (The humorous "dickless tracy," however, meaning a policewoman, was coined by male policemen.)

Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man, and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.

In addition to occupational and professional groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, ghetto groups, institutional populations, agricultural subsocieties, political organizations, the armed forces, Gypsies, and sports groups of many varieties. Some of the most fruitful sources of slang are the subcultures of professional criminals who have migrated to the New World since the 16th century. Old-time thieves still humorously refer to themselves as FFV--First Families of Virginia.

In criminal subcultures, pressure applied by the dominant culture intensifies the internal forces already at work, and the argot forming there emphasizes the values, attitudes, and techniques of the subculture. Criminal groups seem to evolve about this specialized argot, and both the subculture and its slang expressions proliferate in response to internal and external pressures.

В тридцатые, сороковые, пятидесятые годы из Америки в Европу благодаря кино и музыке, шел усиленный экспорт слов и выражений. В шестидесятых годах этот процесс стал двусторонним и более бурным – благодаря бит-буму на Британских островах. Какое-нибудь слово, прозвучавшее из уст любимого рок-музыканта, актера, легко подхватывалось молодежью. Где-то слово прижилось, где-то пропало. И вот через лет десять-пятнадцать оно в одном месте уже вроде как вошло в обиход, стало считаться нормой, а в другом месте – нет, оно все еще сленг…

Но не надо думать, что процесс обогащения английского языка новыми словами закончился в бурные шестидесятые. Он продолжался и в семидесятые, и в восьмидесятые, в конце которых не без помощи все тех же рок-музыкантов возникло много новых понятий либо воскресли хорошо забытые старые; пошла волна обильных сокращений. Продолжается этот процесс и сейчас.

3. Linguistic processes forming slang.

The processes by which words become slang are the same as those by which other words in the language change their form or meaning or both. Some of these are the employment of metaphor, simile, folk etymology, distortion of sounds in words, generalization, specialization, clipping, the use of acronyms, elevation and degeneration, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, borrowings from foreign languages, and the play of euphemism against taboo. The English word trip is an example of a term that has undergone both specialization and generalization. It first became specialized to mean a psychedelic experience resulting from the drug LSD. Subsequently, it generalized again to mean any experience on any drug, and beyond that to any type of "kicks" from anything. Clipping is exemplified by the use of "grass" from "laughing grass," a term for marijuana. "Funky," once a very low term for body odour, has undergone elevation among jazz buffs to signify "the best"; "fanny," on the other hand, once simply a girl's name, is currently a degenerated term that refers to the buttocks (in England, it has further degenerated into a taboo word for the female genitalia). There is also some actual coinage of slang terms.

В США в недалеком прошлом в сленг входили такие привычные выражения, как of course, OK, to get up, lunch. Их «ланч» ( наш «Обед» )- слово, вошедшее в английский язык после Первой мировой войны до сих пор отсутствует в некоторых учебниках, которые по старинке пользуются dinner для обозначения обеда, хоть dinner – это уже больше «ужин», чем «обед»

Азы разговорного языка можно представить, как АВС – эй-би-си, что не так уж и трудно. Так вот, ОК есть первый «аз», или «эй». Второй «аз», или «би», - это слова, выражающие позитивное мироощущение: cool и oh boy. И, наконец, «си» - слова, выражающие негативные ощущения: shit и fuck.

а) OK или O’Kay , знакомо всем с глубокого детства, по характерному знак. ОК имеет несколько жизненно важных значений:

   1) «пожалуйста» на из «спасибо»

   2) «здоров», «здорова», «здоровы»

   3) «правильно»

   4) «все в порядке»

   5) «хорошо», «ладно».

б) Слово «cool» в словарях переводится как нечто среднее между теплым и холодным, то есть прохладное. В повседневном же общении cool звучит в те моменты, когда мы говорим: «здорово!», «класс!», «клево!», «четко!». Иногда можно говорить и great, что точно так же переводится. Тут главное, кто говорит. Если слово «грейт» произносит прилично одетый джентльмен с бабочкой, то great будет переводиться как «грандиозно», есть панк – то «круто», если хиппи – «клево, хиппово», если девушка – «обалденно», а если парень – то «здорово».Great может использоваться и как прилагательное.

в) Shit and fuck. Вышеупомянутые бранные слова являются противовесом позитивным cool и oh boy. Выражают они, соответственно, негативные эмоции. Хотя существуют и исключения. Так, например, на «you are fucking nice» обижаться не стоит, так как у них это значит, что ты, действительно, понравилась. Конечно, где-нибудь на торжественном официальном приеме таких слов избегают, но для улиц, кухонь, комнат и пабов Америки это вполне приемлемо.

4. Uses of slang.

Slang is used for many purposes, but generally it expresses a certain emotional attitude; the same term may express diametrically opposed attitudes when used by different people. Many slang terms are primarily derogatory, though they may also be ambivalent when used in intimacy or affection. Some crystallize or bolster the self-image or promote identification with a class or in-group. Others flatter objects, institutions, or persons but may be used by different people for the opposite effect. "Jesus freak," originally used as ridicule, was adopted as a title by certain street evangelists. Slang sometimes insults or shocks when used directly; some terms euphemize a sensitive concept, though obvious or excessive euphemism may break the taboo more effectively than a less decorous term. Some slang words are essential because there are no words in the standard language expressing exactly the same meaning; e.g., "freak-out," "barn-storm," "rubberneck," and the noun "creep." At the other extreme, multitudes of words, vague in meaning, are used simply as fads.

There are many other uses to which slang is put, according to the individual and his place in society. Since most slang is used on the spoken level, by persons who probably are unaware that it is slang, the choice of terms naturally follows a multiplicity of unconscious thought patterns. When used by writers, slang is much more consciously and carefully chosen to achieve a specific effect. Writers, however, seldom invent slang.

It has been claimed that slang is created by ingenious individuals to freshen the language, to vitalize it, to make the language more pungent and picturesque, to increase the store of terse and striking words, or to provide a vocabulary for new shades of meaning. Most of the originators and purveyors of slang, however, are probably not conscious of these noble purposes and do not seem overly concerned about what happens to their language.

5. Attitudes toward slang.

With the rise of naturalistic writing demanding realism, slang began to creep into English literature even though the schools waged warfare against it, the pulpit thundered against it, and many women who aspired to gentility and refinement banished it from the home. It flourished underground, however, in such male sanctuaries as lodges, poolrooms, barbershops, and saloons.

By 1925 a whole new generation of U.S. and European naturalistic writers was in revolt against the Victorian restraints that had caused even Mark Twain to complain, and today any writer may use slang freely, especially in fiction and drama. It has become an indispensable tool in the hands of master satirists, humorists, and journalists. Slang is now socially acceptable, not just because it is slang but because, when used with skill and discrimination, it adds a new and exciting dimension to language. At the same time, it is being seriously studied by linguists and other social scientists as a revealing index to the culture that produces and uses it.

12. Position in the Language

Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become renewed, and its vigor and color enrich daily speech. Although it has gained respectability in the 20th century, in the past it was often loudly condemned as vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable usage such slang terms as hubbub, to bump, and to dwindle, and 20th-century writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and ambience. Slang appears at all times and in all languages. A person’s head was kapala (dish) in Sanskrit, testa (pot) in Latin; testa later became the standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, Yiddish, Romanian, and Romany (Gypsy) are particularly rich in slang.

III. Appendix.

1.       Начнем со слов sorry и excuse me, которые переводятся как «извините», но употребляются эти слова в разных случаях. Excuse me вы говорите тогда, когда только собираетесь обратиться с вопросом к кому-то, либо собираетесь пройти мимо кого-то, чувствуя, что можете задеть человека локтем, коленом или же всем корпусом. Ну, а sorry вы говорите тогда, когда все это только что проделали, то есть толкнули, задели, наступили, уронили, разбили, опрокинули… Sorry у них говорят также вместо нашего «спасибо», когда оно идет в ответ на «будьте здоровы».