Сравнительная характеристика архитектуры средневиковой и современной англии

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ  РФ

РОССИЙСКИЙ  ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ  УНИВЕРСИТЕТ им.И.КАНТА

ФАКУЛЬТЕТ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ И  МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНОЙ КОММУНИКАЦИИ

КАФЕДРА ТЕОРИИ И МЕТОДИКИ ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ

ПЕРВОГО ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА 
 
 
 

СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА АРХИТЕКТУРЫ

СРЕДНЕВЕКОВОЙ И СОВРЕМЕННОЙ АНГЛИИ 

THE COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF ARCHITECTURE

OF MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ENGLAND 
 
 
 

КУРСОВАЯ РАБОТА 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

РУКОВОДИТЕЛЬ:

Заячковская Ольга Олеговна 
 
 
 

РАБОТУ  ВЫПОЛНИЛА:

Студентка ФЛиМК,

2-го курса, группы 1АТМ

Екатерина Зубарева 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Калининград

2009

 

Contents

1. Introduction. Architecture, definition ….…….…………………………………..3
2. The architecture of Early England ………………………………………………..4

1. Anglo-Saxon Architecture ………….……………………..……………...4
2. Early English Gothic Architecture ...……………………………………...7

3. Medieval Architecture ……….....…………………………………………………8

1. Romanesque architecture in England ..……………………………………9
2. Gothic Revival Architecture...…………………………………………...10
3. Tudor Architecture in England 1500-1575 ...……………………………12
4. Elizabethan Architecture in England 1550-1625 ...……………………...14
5. Georgian Architecture …...………………………………………………15
6. Victorian Art and Architecture …...……………………………………..16
7. Palladian Architecture ...…………………………………………………17
8. Regency Architecture …...……………………………………………….18

4. New World – new architecture ...…………………………………………….…..19

1. The Barrier on the Thames ………………………………………………19
2. The London Bridge-Tower ……………………………………………...20
3. Sent-Mary X, 30 …………………………………………………………21

5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
7. Appendix…………………………………………………………………………34

 

      Introduction

     Architecture – the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials is related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.

     The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.

     Until the 20th century there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th century new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.  

Anglo-Saxon Architecture

     England is not blessed with an abundance of surviving Anglo-Saxon buildings. There is good reason for this scarcity; the Anglo-Saxon period was one beset by frequent warfare and violent invasions, particularly by the Vikings in the period 800-950. These invaders, quite naturally, burned and destroyed most of the settlements they came across, in their search for plunder and martial glory. For this reason most surviving examples of Anglo-Saxon architecture date from either 600-725 or 900-1050.

     Unfortunately for posterity, most Saxon buildings were constructed of wood with wattle and daub walls. The depredations of the Danes left very few of these flammable buildings standing. The only buildings the Anglo-Saxons tended to build in more permanent stone were their monasteries and churches.

     There are two regions where the earliest Saxon work is concentrated; in the southeast around the county of Kent and in Northumbria. In Kent the best surviving churches are those of St. Peter and St. Paul, Canterbury (c. 600), and St. Peter-on-the-Wall, Bradwell (c. 660). These churches are heavily influenced by the Roman basilcan tradition, with a rounded chancel in the east and plain walls. Look appendix #1

     In Northumbria the Celtic churches at Escomb, County Durham (c. 690) and the monastic buildings at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, Tyne and Wear (c. 675). These buildings betray their Celtic origins, with tall, aisles naves and a rectangular chancel. After the Synod of Whidbey (664) swung the pendulum of power towards Roman Christian observance, the northern churches took up the basilcan plan, as in the crypt at Hexham, Northumbria (674).

     Surprisingly few large churches remain from the later period of Saxon building (900-1050). The larger buildings, particularly the monasteries, were generally rebuilt in the Norman period and little Saxon work remains above ground. The smaller churches are extremely simple in layout; basically a simple nave divided from a rectangular chancel by a narrow arch. Examples include St. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, and Boarhound, Hampshire.

     Saxon churches are generally small in scale, showing none of the inclination towards grandeur exhibited by the later Norman builders. Doors and window openings are extremely simple, with very few decorative elements. Though some windows are low triangles, more often they are narrow slit openings with a simple rounded top. When the openings were larger they were often supported on short pillars of plain stone or simple balusters. Look appendix #2

     The Anglo-Saxon's put a lot of energy into tower building in their church architecture, and often Saxon towers are the earliest surviving part of English parish churches. The towers began as a defensive structure; they enabled inhabitants of a village to gain a high lookout point and an easily defensible position to ward off attacks. Saxon towers often had rooms high up which were reached by a ladder. The ladder could then be drawn up when danger threatened.

     One characteristic of Anglo-Saxon stonework should be noted; they often used long strips of vertical stone, called "pilaster strips", in the exterior walls of their churches. Often these stones form a simple criss-cross pattern. Look appendix #3

     At corners the Saxons frequently used alternate horizontal and vertical stones. This pattern, sometimes called "long-and-short work", is easily distinguished from the more common Norman pattern of alternating horizontal stones.

     Another common Anglo-Saxon element, particularly in the north, is the stone cross. These crosses were often used to mark points where paths intersected, though they were later used as a gathering place for religious observance. Crosses may have been put up at sites which were already regarded as sacred in pagan worship. Later on, churches were built at the same spots, preserving a continuity of worship. Some of the finest crosses still to be seen are at Ilkley (West Yorkshire), Bewcastle, Gosforth, and Irton (Cambria), and Bakewell (Derbyshire). Look appendix #4

     Although there are local variations in cross design, the circle cross, like that at Durham, Cambria, was a widely used pattern. In a circle cross the arms of a stone cross extend just to, or slightly beyond, a circle of protective stone. Similar circle crosses can be found in other places with strong Celtic traditions; in Wales and Ireland.

     As mentioned above, most domestic structures in the Saxon period were built in wood. Even the halls of nobles were simple affairs, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape. Even the largest buildings rarely had more than one floor, and one room. Even the best archaeological remains of domestic buildings from the Anglo-Saxon period offer little more than post holes to view, which indicate the size of the hall, but little more. Look appendix #5

     Buildings vary widely in size, from 10 x 12 ft to as much as 75 x 260 feet. Most are square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors; a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for winter insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design is found in towns, where the "basement" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor.

     Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Cruck framing, where two large timbers are bent together to form a peak, was also used, though this technique became much more common in the Norman period.

 

Early English Gothic Architecture

     The Early English period (1180-1275) period marks the first flowering of English Gothic. The Gothic style evolved in France; indeed it was first called "The French Style", beginning in the middle of the 12th century.

     Early English emphasizes height, as if the builders were reaching for the sky. In a sense, they were, as church building was a symbolic expression of religious aspiration. Church architecture in particular had to symbolize Christian thought to a largely illiterate population. Thus even decorative touches such as carvings and statues of saints had to tell a story to people who could not read.

     The major distinction between the Early English and the Norman, or Romanesque period, which preceded it, is the use of the pointed arch. The pointed arch allowed a whole range of new building expression to take place; arches could span greater distances, allowing vaults to be taller and wider. The arch could support greater weight, allowing walls to be thinner and pierced by wider window openings. This in turn encouraged the use of stained glass. Look appendix #27.

     The simple buttresses of the Norman period gave way to flying buttresses, which distributed the weight and thrust of roofs and walls right down to the ground. These flying buttresses may be visible over the aisles, but just as often were concealed in the aisle roof. Another variation on the Early English buttress is the "Oxford buttress", set diagonally at corners. Look appendix #28.

     The massive columns of the Romanesque period were replaced with thin clusters of shafts, often built of dark Pubic marble. The capitals of shafts were often richly carved, with highly stylized foliage designs being popular. The richness of these carvings was due in part to the introduction of the chisel in stone carving. Previously, carving had been done with axes, necessitating low relief and fairly simple designs. Look appendix #29.

     Early in the 13th century windows were primarily of a simple, lancet design, either single or grouped together. Later designs favored two or three lights grouped under a single dripstone.  Look appendix #30.

     Where the hood molding (dripstone) followed a pointed design, echoing the lines of the windows, the architects put small ornamental holes in the space between the molding and the lancets. This approach is called Plate Tracery (see drawing). As plate tracery developed, the small holes became more elaborate, evolving into ornate trefoil and quatrefoil designs. Look appendix #31.

     The most complete example of Early English is without a doubt to be seen at Salisbury Cathedral. Salisbury is unique in that it was built within a short time span (c1200-1275), thus its architectural style, with the exception of the 14th century tower and spire, is fairly uncluttered by later additions and alterations.

 

Medieval Architecture

     Art in the middle ages was inseparable from religion. It was infused with spiritual symbolism and meaning. The purpose of art was to awe and inspire the viewer with the grandeur of God. It also served to symbolize what people believed. Pope Gregory the Great, he of the Gregorian chants, said, "Painting can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who read."

     The mission of the sculptor, whose work was seen almost exclusively adorning church buildings, was to educate as well as decorate. He brought Biblical tales and moral lessons to life in stone. Carvings were not just religious, however. Everywhere you look there is evidence of pre-Christian symbology in church sculpture; animals’ real and fanciful, scenes of everyday life, and the pagan "Green man" peering out from amongst carefully wrought leaves and vines of stone. Sculpture burst forth gloriously in the Romanesque era, with little regard for classical conventions of proportion of figures.

     At the beginning of the Norman era the style of architecture that was in vogue was known as Romanesque, because it copied the pattern and proportion of the architecture of the Roman Empire. The chief characteristics of the Romanesque style were barrel vaults, round arches, thick piers, and few windows. Look appendix #9

     These early Norman churches were not always as stark as they seem today, however. In their heyday the church walls were hung with tapestries or painted richly. The statues of the saints were gilded, and the service books were inlaid with gold, jewels, and ivory. Chalices and reliquaries were encrusted with gems.

     Beginning in 12th century France a new style of architecture and decoration emerged. At the time it was called simply "The French Style", but later Renaissance critics, appalled at the abandonment of classical line and proportion, derisively called it "Gothic". This was a reference to the imagined lack of culture of the barbarian tribes, including the Goths, which had ransacked Rome in the twilight of the Roman Empire.

     Gothic architecture is light, spacious, and graceful. Advances in architectural technique learned from contacts with the Arab world during the Crusades led to innovations such as the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and the buttress. Heavy Romanesque piers were replaced by slender clusters of columns. Window sizes grew enormously, as did the height of vaults and spires.

     Sculpture became free standing rather than being incorporated in columns. The new expanse of window space was filled with gloriously rich colored glass. The easiest point of reference to look for in a Gothic church is the pointed arch, seen in window openings and doors. Also, the later Gothic churches had very elaborate decoration, especially the "tracery", or stonework supporting the stained glass windows.

 

Romanesque architecture in England

     The Norman invaders of England introduced their own style of building into their new island domain. Although elements of Romanesque style had been used in England before the Conquest (as in Edward the Confessor's Westminster Abbey), Norman Romanesque marked such a radical departure from the Anglo-Saxon traditions that it must be considered on its own.

     The most obvious characteristic of the Norman Romanesque is its reliance on sheer bulk. Everything is larger, more solid, and carries with it an air of permanence very much at odds with earlier Saxon work. Cathedral and castle walls were as thick as 24 feet at the base.

     Although the piers which carry the weight of Romanesque buildings may be rounded, polygonal, or compound, they utilize mass to do their job. In part, the very simple style of Norman Romanesque may attribute to the fact that the builders had to utilize untrained Saxon labor; laborers who had a tradition of building in wood, not stone. Look appendix #6