Sindarin as a linguistic phenomenon

Parmâ (book) comes from a stem par (compose, put together). Sometimes -mâ denotes an impersonal agent, as in tuimâ (a sprout, bud) from tuy (spring, sprout). In some cases, -mâ is used simply to derive concrete nouns, as in pathmâ (level space, sward). Infrequently the ending -mâ may also denote a substance, as in wilmâ (air, lower air) from the stem wil (fly, float in air), or sagmâ (poison) from the stem sug (bitter).

The ending -mê is properly an abstract or verbal noun ending, much like English "-ing", as in julmê (drinking, carousal), from the stem julu (drink) [14, p.416] or labmê (moving of the tongue). A number of other words are easily explained as abstract words that have taken on a more concrete meaning, as such words often do: rakmê (fathom), tekmê (letter, symbol), tinmê (sparkle, glint). In a few cases, the ending -mê/-me occurs in the names of substances: khithme (fog), silimê (light of Silpion). The agental ending -mô is attested in the word Ulumô (Pourer, Ulmo) only.

The ending -nâ /-na is very productive. In a few cases the final vowel is marked as accented. Its function is to form adjectives: In the Unfinished Tales, p.266, a word in -nâ is called as an "ancient adjectival form", while in the War of Jewels, p.365 another such word, heklanâ, is called an "extended adjectival form" (extended as compared to the shorter adjectival form heklâ). Examples include ku3nâ (bowed, bow-shaped, bent), magnâ (skilled), ornâ (uprising, tall) [14, p.266]. This ending may well be added to stems that already have an adjectival meaning, such as krannâ (ruddy (of face)) from or mornâ (dark). A longer form -inâ, -ina is found in a few words: smalinâ (yellow), Bedûina (of the Spouses, Aulë and Yavanna), ngolwina (wise, learned in deep arts).

The word luktiênê (enchantress), the primitive form of Lúthien, seems to contain a feminine ending -nê. A distinct ending -nê occurs in ornê (slender tree). The suffix - nô is a masculine ending. It occurs in bernô (man) and besnô (husband). The endings -ô, -o are predominantly a masculine ending. Often -ô is seen to have an agental meaning: kânô (crier, herald), mâlô (friend), ndâkô (warrior, soldier).

  In some words -ô, -o have no agental meaning, but are simply masculine endings: urkô "Orc" [20, p.390], ndêro (bridegroom), tawarô/tawaro (ryad, spirit of woods). The ending -ô also occurs in the names of some animals: rokkô (horse) and morokô (bear); we may include ûbanô (monster). Yet another masculine ending, -ondô, is seen in stalgondô (hero, dauntless man); kalrondô (hero).

The ending -râ is a fairly productive adjectival suffix: wa3râ (soiled, dirty), mikrâ (sharp-pointed) [20, p.337], nethrâ/nethra (young).

The ending -rê seems to have several meanings. It functions as an abstract ending in the two words idrê (thoughtfulness) and thêrê (look, face, expression). On the other hand, it is a collective ending in the word nôrê (family, tribe or group having a common ancestry) [20, p.413].          

  The endings -rô, -ro function simply as a masculine ending and have no agental significance: târo (king), kalrô (noble man, hero).

An apparently adjectival ending -sâ occurs in the word neresâ. This is said to be a "feminine adjectival formation" from ner (man), meaning "she that has manlike valour or strength" [20, p.416].

An ending -sê occurs in a number of words, but it seems to have several meanings. In some words it apparently denotes something that is made by the action denoted by the stem: khotsê (assembly), sjatsê (cleft, gash), wahsê (stain). A few words indicate that -sê may also be used to derive words for implements (taksê (nail)) or constructions (tupsê "thatch"). A distinct feminine ending -sê seems to occur in a few words, such as ndîse (bride).

The endings -tâ, -ta are in most cases verbal suffixes. Most verbs are clearly transitive: anta (to present, give), hektâ (set aside, cast out, forsake), skelta (strip).

An adjectival ending -ti or -iti is seen in a few words: ma3iti (handy, skilled), neiti (moist, dewy), phoroti (right/north).

The ending -û is a dual suffix, but it also has other meanings. Words in -û, -u are nearly always nouns, rarely verbs and never adjectives. A masculine ending -û seems to be present in atû (father) and kherû (master) [3, p.282]. Some u-words denote localities: jagu (gulf), tumbu (deep valley) and tundu (hill, mound). Only one word in -u denotes a substance: smalu (pollen, yellow powder).

The ending -wâ, -wa is seen to be basically an adjectival suffix. It occurs in several colour-words: khithwa (grey), laikwâ (green), smalwâ (fallow, pale), narwâ (fiery red). There is also the adjective katwâ (shaped, formed). In one case -wâ turns up in a word stated to be an "adverb and preposition": hekwâ (leaving aside, not counting, excluding, except). The ending -wâ also occurs in a couple of bird-names: alkwâ (swan) and kukûwâ (dove).

The ending -wê is identified by Tolkien as an abstract suffix. It is clearly used to produce verbal nouns in words like etkuiwê (awakening) and wanwê (death); Tolkien made it clear that wanwê refers to the act of dying, not "death" as a state. Some concrete words in -wê can be explained as abstract verbal nouns that have taken on a concrete meaning: atakwê (construction, building).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.2 Phonology of Primitive Elvish

The sounds 

The vowels of Primitive Elvish are short and long a, e, i, o, u. The frequent long vowels are very characteristic of Primitive Elvish. If the final vowels appear as final elements in a compound, they are sometimes shortened: tûrô (lord), Spanturo “Cloud-lord”. The plural ending î remains long: kala-kwendî. The primitive diphthongs were ai, au, ei, eu, iu, oi, ou, ui. Ou later have merged with au. In Vinyar Tengwar, Tolkien states that the Eldar preferred diphthongs ending in î during is period. Also there are two semi-vowels in Primitive Quendian - j, w. These semi-vowels can be interchanged, mainly from j to y (tjala – tyala – “player”) and from w to v (way –vay-“envelope”). This was done due to the fact that many English speakers would misunderstand the Quendian letter j with the English one.

Tolkien set out the entire consonant system in three series: the p-series, t-series and k-series. In Primitive Elvish there are voiceless stops, voiceless aspirated stops, voiced stops, nasal–stops, nasal sonants, oral sonants or weak voiced spirants, voiceless spirants, and voiced spirants. We presented this system in the following table [1]:

	p-series	t-series	k-series
Voiceless stops	p	t	k
Voiceless aspirated stops	ph (as in English word uphold)	th (English outhouse)	kh (English Elkhorn)
Voiced stops	b	d	g
Nasal stops	mb	nd	ñg (as in English ring)
Nasal sonants	m	n	ñ
Oral sonants or weak voiced spirants	w	l and r	j
Voiceless spirants		s
Voiced spirant		z	3 (later h)
Labio-velar			q

 

Initial clusters

In Primitive Elvish there is quite a wide range of initial clusters in s: sj-, sk-, skw-, sl-, sm-, sn-, sp-, sr-, st-, sw-. Some initial clusters are simply nasalized-stops: mb-, nd-, ñg. A number of clusters end in one of the two semi-vowels: dj-, gj-, kj-, khj-, ndj-, ñgj-, nj-, sj-, skj-, tj-; gw-, ñgw-, kw, skw-, sw-. As far as we can judge, kw merged into labio-velar sound q just before the Separation [5].

 

 

Stress

In Primitive Elvish accent was not determined by the form of the word. There seems to be no way of predicting which syllable is stressed in Primitive Elvish. Most words of Primitive Elvish are accented on the first syllable: Abarô, bAnâ, bAnjâ, bElekâ, Orku, tElesâ, etc. Other words are stressed on the penultimate syllable: barAdâ, ontÂro, berEkâ, morOkô, jurUmbê, etc. Some other words are stressed on the final syllable: barasÂ, barjÂ, barnÂ, tambÂ, etc. As we can see from these examples, there is no connection between accent and long vowels. The early Elves didn’t find it difficult to pronounce long vowels that were wholly unaccented.

Possible phonological restrains

1. The oldest form of Elvish had a few phonological restrains. At the very oldest stage all words had to end in a vowel, though later final consonants had lost vowels: PQ abaro – CE abar, PQ Balâre –CE Balar, PQ kwene – CE kwên, PQ Lindonâ –CE Lindon, PQ palantîra-CE palantir.
2. While there seems to be no correlation between long vowels and stress, long vowels cannot occur before consonant clusters. Two long vowels in sequence may also be impossible.
3. In Common Eldarin the semi-vowel w couldn’t occur before the corresponding vowel u, and y cannot occur before i.
4. Whereas the primitive language did allow initial mb-, nd- and ñg-, the corresponding unvoiced combinations mp-, nt- and ñk- apparently couldn’t occur at the beginning of words.

 

 

 

 

2.3 Grammar of Primitive Elvish

Nouns

The category of number

The primitive language distinguished three numbers: singular, dual and plural. The singular was the basic form of the noun: ailin (pool, lake), ari (day), bernô (man), galadâ (tree), etc. The dual was formed with the ending -û and applied only to two things that make a pair: besû (husband and a wife, married pair), lasû (ears), besû (lips). The normal plural ending was –î. The plural ending –î was shortened to –i when added to a long vowel, and if the final vowel was short, it could be displaced by the plural ending: Lindâ (Elf belonging to the clan of Teleri) – Lindâi, kwene (person, Elf) – kweni (people). Ig the final vowel is long, i is added to it thus forming final diphthong in –i: kwessê (feather) – kwessêi, Lindâ- Lindâi, ornê (tree) – ornêi. Sometimes the plural is formed directly from a naked stem instead of being added to the final vowel: Balâ (Vala, Power, God) – Balî [11].

Another primitive plural ending, mentioned in the Etymologies was –m: Lepem (fingers).  It has been used to indicate plurality after case endings and enclitic particles. It is the origin of the plural ending –n, seen in some Quenya words. 

The category of case

The Primitive Elvish had two cases:

1. allative – end in –dâ: baradâ (lofty, sublime)
2. accusative – formed by the lengthening of the final vowel: cirya (ships) – ciryâ.

Prepositions in Primitive Quendian were attached to noun–stem so they acted as postpositions. Real prepositions appeared in Common Eldarin.

 

 

Verbs

There is not too much that can be said about the verbal system in the primitive language. The frequent verbal endings -jâ,- tâ can be identified. Present tense is attested in only one example that we found in Tolkien’s published writings: uljâ (pours). He refers to the present tense stems ending â in the War of Jewels, p.372. In the same book, p.415 it is suggested that the past tense of the primitive language was marked by reduplicated base-vowel, and the long stem-vowel: kwe(speak) – ekwê(spoke). The e of kwe was prefixed as an augment or reduplication and the original e being lengthened to ê. Another past tense ending of Primitive Elvish is nё: suknё (drinking-vessel) > suknё. The infinitive ending is –ië. Future tense ending, seen in Quenya and Sindarin, is an innovation and has no counterparts in the Primitive Elvish. The continuative form in Primitive Elvish is long ending â: palantîr (the Seeng Stone) – palantîrâ. We have one example of primitive perfect tense: awâwiiê. It is formed by lengthening and prefixing of the stem-vowel and adding the suffix iiê.  It may be noted that the primitive language had no inflectional imperative; instead the independent imperative particle â, variable in place, was used in conjunction with a verbal stem [18, p.365]. How other forms of verbs in Primitive Elvish are formed we do not know.

Pronouns

All the pronouns of Primitive Elvish are seen in the Etymologies. First people stem ni for I can be found in the primitive language and in Quenya. Tolkien speaks of de and its variant le as pronominal element in the second person singular. Demonstrative ta (that) is relevant to Quenya te(them). The third person was primarily associated with another demonstrative stem in s: sû or sú for he, sî or sí for she.

 

 

 

 

 

Other parts of speech

Adjectives are numerous. Their types can be seen from the previous paragraph where different endings are described.

Adverbs are merged with prepositions in the primitive language and have adjectival endings, no special adverbial ending. The examples of advebs are only two: akwâ (fully, altogether, wholly) and hekwâ (leaving aside, not counting).

The only one negative element found in Primitive Elvish is bâ (no!). It expresses refusal, not denial of facts.

There are no articles in Primitive Elvish. The function of the definite article had the demonstrative pronoun ta (that) and a deitic particle i (the descendant of Quenya and Sindarin definite article i): ta rimbê (that crowd), i galada (that tree).          

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3. Quenya as a linguistic phenomenon

Quenya, or High Elven, is the most prominent language of the Elves in Valinor and the language of lore in Midle-earth. In Valinor there were two dialects of Quenya: Vanyarin and Noldorin. After the rebellion of the Noldor, the latter dialect was brought to Middle-earth. Quenya is an archaic language and preserved many features of the Primitive Elvish, though it underwent certain changes in Valinor and later simplificated in Middle-earth due to many wars and encounters with the Grey Elves, or the Sindar. Also Quenya was “the first to be recorded in writing. It was no longer a birth-tongue, but had become, as it were, an “Elven-latin”, still used for ceremony, and for high matters of lore and song, by the High Elves, who had returned in exile to Middle-earth at the end of the First Age” [23, Appendix F].

3.1 Phonology of Quenya

Quenya has five short and long vowels: a, e, i, o, u; the long vowels are marked with an accent: á, é, í, ó, ú. The vowel a is extremely frequent. The long sounds were approximately represented by i, e, a, o, u in English words machine, were, father, for, brute respectively. Long e and o, when correctly pronounced, are tender and closer than the short vowels. Final e is never mute as in English and it is often written as ё: Manwë rather than Manwe to indicate that the final e is not silent, or Eärendil to indicate that the vowels e and a are pronounced separately and not drawn together as in English word ear - the dots are not necessary for the meaning and can safely be left.

The diphthongs are ai, au, oi, ui, eu, iu, so the are pronounced in one syllable. All other pairs are dissylabic. These diphthongs are falling, that is stressed on the first element. Thus ai, oi and ui are intended to be pronounced respectively as the vowels in English rye, boy, ruin; au can be pronounced as in English loud, how; for eu there is no corresponding element in English. Perhaps this sound is pronounced closely to the diphthong iu, pronounced as yu in English yule [5].

The consonants are for the most part the same as in English, with the sibilants as the main exception. Quenya has a sound like the German ich-Laut, spelt hy by Tolkien: hyarmen (south). It should also be noted that the voiced plosives b, d, g only occur in the clusters mb, nd/ld/rd and ng. The value of the consonants and  their combinations can be seen in the following list [23, Appendix E]:

• C has always the value of k: celeb (silver) should be pronounced as keleb
• CH is only used to represent the sound heard in German word bach. Later in the speech of Gondor this sound was weakened to h: Rohan, Rohirrim
• DH represents th in English these
• F represents f, except at the end of words , where it is used to represent the sound of English v heard in of: Gandalf, Nindalf
• G has the only sound of  g in English give: Gildor, Gilraen, Osgiliath
• H standing alone with no other consonant has the sound of h in English house, behold. The combination ht has the sound of soft variant of  ch in German bach
• K is used in the names drawn from other than Elvish languages, with thye same value as c. Kh is a variant of ch
• L represents more or less the sound of Ebglish initial l in let. In archaic Quenya was written as hl, spelt l
• NG represents ng in finger, except finally when it was sounded as in English sing. The latter sound later occurred initially and then simplified to n
• PH has the same sound as f. It is used when f occurs at the end of a word, as in alph (swan), when this sound is derived from a p, as in perian > pheriannath (the Halflings, Hobbits), when it represents a long ff in the middle of words, as in Ephel (outer fence)
• QU is used for cw. This combination is very frequent in Quenya
• R represents a trilled r in all positions. In archaic Quenya was written hr, pronounced r
• S is always voiceless, as in English so
• TH represents voiceless th, as in English thin. In spoken Quenya this sound later became s: Ithil (written) – Isil (spoken)
• TY represents a sound similat to t in English tune
• V has the same sound as the English one, but it is not used finally
• W has the sound of English w. HW is a voiceless w, as in English white
• Y is the sound of the English one, heard in you. HY has the same relation to y as HW to , and represents a sound like that often heard in English huge, hew [23, Appendix E].

There are no initial consonant clusters, except qu (= cw), ty, ny and nw if we count the semi-vowels y, w as consonants. Normally there are no final clusters either; words end either in one of the single consonants t, s, n, l, r or in a vowel, more often the latter. Medially between vowels, a limited number of consonant clusters may occur: cc, ht, hty, lc, ld, ll, lm, lp, lqu, lt, lv, lw, ly, mb, mm, mn, mp, my, nc, nd, ng, ngw, nn, nqu, nt, nty, nw, ny, ps, pt, qu (for cw), rc, rd, rm, rn, rqu, rr, rt, rty, rs, rw, ry, sc, squ, ss, st, sty, sw, ts, tt, tw, ty, x (for ks). A few other combinations may occur in compounds. Quenya phonology is quite restrictive, giving the language a clearly defined style and flavour.

Stress

The position of the stress is not marked, since in the Eldarin languages its place is determined by the form of the word. In words of two syllables it falls on the first syllable: Oromё, fЁanor. In longer words it falls on the last syllable but one: erEssёa, elentÁri, pelArgir. In words where the las syllable but one contains a short vowel followed by only one or no consonant, the stress falls on the syllable before it: ancAlima, dEnethor, echtElion [23, Appendix E].

 

 

 

3.2 Grammar of Quenya

The Noun

The Quenya noun is inflected for ten cases.  Where English uses a preposition in front of a noun, Quenya often prefers to add an ending to the noun instead.

The category of number

The numbers are singular, plural, partitive plural and dual [10]. The singular needs no explanation.

The simple plural is formed with one or two endings. The ending -r is used if the noun ends in any vowel except -ë; well-known examples are Vala pl. Valar, Elda pl. Eldar, Ainu pl. Ainur. If the noun ends in a consonant or in -ë, the plural ending is -i, and it displaces the final -ë: Atan pl. Atani, Quendë pl. Quendi. But if the noun ends in -ië, it forms it’s plural in -r to avoid one i following another: tië (path), tier (paths).

The function of the partitive plural is to denote "some" out of a larger group: if one were to say "I saw some Elves in the forest", the phrase "some Elves" would be represented by the partitive plural Eldali in Quenya. The form thus identifies these Elves as a group distinct from all Elves (= Eldar, without article). The element li can be also translated as many.

The dual is used with reference to a natural pair, like two hands belonging to one person: máryat (her hands) in Namárië; -t being a dual ending: literally her pair of hands.

The category of case

The nominative is the basic form of the noun. The typical function of a nominative noun is to be the subject of a verb.

Quenya as spoken in Valinor had the accusative that was formed by lengthening of the final vowel of the noun. The function of the accusative was primarily to mark that the noun was the object of a verb. But in Middle-earth the distinct accusative case disappeared from the speech of the Noldor during many wars, and nominative took its former functions.

The genitive generally corresponds to the English ending ‘s, though Quenya genitive is often better rendered by an of-construction in English. The ending is added to the nominative plural.

Then there is the possessive. Its general function is like the English genitive, to express ownership.

The ending of the dative generally translates as the preposition for or to. Often it corresponds to an indirect object in English.

The locative has the ending that carries the meaning on or in.

The ablative has the ending that carries the meaning from or out of.

The allative has the ending meaning to, into, upon. The allative may also carry the meaning upon.

The instrumental case has the ending that marks the instrument with which something is done, or simply the reason why something happens.

The respective is a case that is listed in a letter Tolkien sent to Dick Plotz in the second half of the sixties (the so-called Plotz Letter is indeed our main source of information about the Quenya cases). Its meaning is unknown due to the fact that Tolkien didn’t mention it anywhere [10].

If case endings are added to a noun ending in a consonant, an e is often inserted between the noun and the ending to prevent a difficult cluster from arising; if the noun is plural, an i is inserted between the noun and the ending.