Sindarin as a linguistic phenomenon

These are the Quenya case endings:

• Nominative: Sg. no ending, pl. -r or -i, part. pl. –li, dual -t or -u.
• Accusative (in Valinorean Quenya only): Sg. lengthening of the final vowel (if any), pl. -i, part. pl. lí, dual: lengthening of the final u to ú. There is no distinct accusative in the case of nouns, ending in a consonant.
• Dative: Sg. -n, pl. -in, part.pl. -lin, dual –nt
• Genitive: Sg. -o, pl. -on (added to the nom.pl.), part.pl. -lion, dual -to
• Possessive: Sg. -va, pl. -iva, part.pl. -líva, dual -twa
• Locative: Sg. -ssë, pl. -ssen, part.pl. -lisse(n), dual -tsë
• Allative: Sg. -nna, pl. -nnar, part.pl. -linna(r), dual -nta
• Ablative: Sg. -llo, pl. -llon or -llor, part.pl. -lillo(n), dual -lto
• Instrumental: Sg. -nen, pl. -inen, part.pl. -línen, dual -nten
• Respective: Sg. -s, pl. -is part.pl. -lis, dual -tes

The examples of the nouns with these endings are introduced in Appendix 1.

The Article

Quenya has a definite article i (the): i eleni (the stars) in Namárië. There is no indefinite article like English "a, an"; the absence of the article i usually indicates that the noun is indefinite: Elen must be translated a star when English grammar requires an article, as in the famous greeting Elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo (a star shines at the hour of our meeting) [23, book1/ch. 3].

The 'n is seen in the phrase utúlie'n aurë (the day has come) [19, ch. 20], appears to be a variant of the article. This 'n may be used in a phonological environment already dominated by vowels.

The Verb

Quenya verbs can be divided into two categories. The smallest group may be termed basic (or primary) verbs. The stem of such a verb represents a basic root with no additions. For instance, the verb mat (eat) comes directly from the Eldarin root-word mat of similar meaning [12, p.371].

The second, larger group of Quenya verbs may be termed A-stems, or derived verbs. They all show the final vowel -a, but it is not part of the basic root. The endings -ya and -ta are by far the commonest. For instance, the root tul (come) yields not only the basic verb, but also the longer A-stems tulta (to summon) and tulya (to bring). Here the endings are seen to modify the root meaning; in this case both -ta and -ya are causative, since to summon and to bring are variations of the idea to make come. But often, the endings seem to make no difference for the meaning. Some A-stem verbs show less frequent endings like –na: harna (to wound). There are also a few A-stems that end in the simple ending –a: ora (to urge).

Five Quenya tenses are known: aorist, present, past, perfect, and future [10].

The aorist is the simplest form both by its meaning and shape. The basic meaning of the verb is not modified or limited in any particular way. The aorist may express general, timeless truths, as when Elves are described as i carir quettar (those who make words) [21, p.391]. However, it can equally well describe a simple, ongoing action: Auta i lómë! (The night is passing!). In this context the translation is passing is the most natural English rendering. The Quenya aorist corresponds to the simple English present tense. The aorist of a basic verb originally showed the ending -i. In Quenya, the final short -i of earlier stages of Elvish had changed into -ë, so now the aorist of a primary verb like car (make, do) appeared as carë instead. When a finite Quenya verb occurs with a plural subject, the verb receives the plural ending –r (carir).

What is sometimes called the Quenya present tense is also referred to as the continuative form. It refers to an action that is explicitly identified as ongoing, and it is often best translated by means of the English “is V-ing” construction. The present tense of a basic verb is formed by adding the ending -a and lengthening of the vowel of the verbal stem itself. Thus the verb sil (shine) has the present-tense form síla (is shining). Sometimes Tolkien translates Quenya present-tense forms by means of the English simple present tense, as in the famous greeting elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo (a star shines at the hour of our meeting).

As for the present tense of A-stem verbs, their ending is –ёa: the final -a of the stem undergoes dissimilation to -ë- to avoid two a's in sequence when the ending -a associated with the present tense is added. The attested example is lantёa (is falling). Where there is no consonant cluster following the stem-vowel, it is lengthened just as in the case of basic verbs: thus órëa from ora (urge). However, most A-stems do have a consonant cluster following the stem-vowel, and in front of a cluster, Quenya cannot have a long vowel.

The Quenya past tense always shows the final vowel –ë. This vowel -ë is very often part of the ending -në, which seems to be the most general past tense marker in Quenya. A-stem verbs typically add this ending. For instance, a verb orta (to rise/raise) is listed in the Etymologies and the song Namárië in LotR demonstrates that its past tense is ortanë. One more example is ulya (to pour) – ulyanë. About primary verbs it can be said the following: when they end in –r, -m, -n, these verbs can take the ending -në just like A-stem verbs. Examples from the Etymologies include tirnë as the past tense of tir (to watch), tamnë as the past tense of tam (to tap) and men (arrive, go) has the past tense mennë. However, primary verbs in -p, -t, and -c cannot receive the ending –në due to the fact that the clusters pn, tn, cn are not permitted in Quenya. This problem is solved by replacing the nasal element of the ending -në with nasal infixion intruding before the final consonant of the verbal stem. The nasal infix appears as m before p; n before t; and before c (k) it is pronounced like the ng of English king, but it is still spelt n: top (to cover) – tompë,hat (to break) hantë, tac (to fasten) – tancë. Primary verbs in -l as their final consonant seem to double it in the past tense: vil (to fly) - villë. The perfect tense expresses the idea of an action that has been completed in the past, but that is still relevant for the present moment. English has no unitary perfect tense, but employs a circumlocution involving the verb "to have", as in "he has come". Quenya does have a unitary perfect tense. All perfect forms receive the ending -ië (in plural -ier). The vowel of the verbal stem is, if possible, lengthened. Thus from the stem tul (to come) we have the perfect tense utúlië (has come).

As we see, a prefix u- emerges here. This prefix, or the augment, depends on the vowel of the verbal stem and is identical to it: mat (to eat) - amátië (has eaten), not (to count) - onótië (has counted), tuv (to find) - utúvië (has found). The perfect tense of verbs in -ya can be formed as if this ending were not present at all, leaving only the basic root of the verb, which necessarily behaves as a primary verb in the perfect tense. In the Etymologies, Tolkien listed a verb vanya (go, depart, disappear) [12, p.397]. Its perfect tense form is avánië.

The future tense has the ending -uva (plural -uvar). For instance, the future tense of the basic verb mar (dwell, abide) is maruva (will abide). The final vowel of A-stem verbs seems to drop out before this ending. Attested examples are: linda (sing) – liduva, ora (urge) - oruva. The future tense is also has a "wishing formula" introduced by the word nai (be it that or wish that). Thus a future tense like tiruvantes (they will keep it) may be used to expresse a wish by prefixing nai: nai tiruvantes for may they keep it or wish that they will keep it [22, p.317].

In addition to these five tenses, the Quenya verb may also appear in forms of infinitive, gerund and imperative. The infinitive of a basic verb shows the ending –ë: polin quetë (I can speak) [26]. A-stem verbs apparently show no special endings in the infinitive; the stem and the infinitive are simply. So the infinitive is identical in form to the aorist. Quenya also has an extended infinitive which adds the ending -ta. When added to the infinitive of a basic verb, its ending -ë instead appears as -i-, while the simplest infinitive of the verb car (to do, to make) is carë, its extended infinitive is carita. The extended infinitive may receive pronominal endings denoting the object of the infinitive: caritas (to do it).

The extended infinitive may also function as a gerund, that is, a verbal noun the English equivalent of which is formed with the ending -ing. In English this ending is also used to form active participles, but they are quite distinct in Quenya. An extended infinitive is seen to function as a gerund in the sentence lá carita i hamil mára alasaila ná (not doing what you judge good would be unwise) [25].

Another infinitival/gerundial ending is -ië, as in the verbal noun tyalië (playing). The final -a of an A-stem verb would apparently be omitted before the ending –ië. Combined with the dative ending -n (to, for), such gerunds express the meaning of English infinitives signifying "in order to do": enyal (recall)- enyalien (in order to recall/commemorate)[22, p.317].

The imperative is formed by placing the independent imperative particle á in front of a form similar to the simplest infinitive or the aorist: carë (to do) - á carë (do! or make!). The imperative particle may also appear in the shorter form: a laita te! (bless them!). A negative imperative may be introduced by áva (don't!): áva carë (don't do it!) [22, p.371].

Special verbs

Not all Quenya verbs fit into the system sketched above. Irregularities are often historically justified in terms of the underlying phonological evolution Tolkien had in mind. So let us speak of special not irregular verbs.

One example of a historically justified irregularity is provided to the verb rer (to sow). We might expect its past tense to be rernë. But the actual past tense form is rendë. This difference is easily explained: if the r had been r all along( tir is the stem for the verb tir(to watch)), the final -r of the verb rer comes from an earlier d - the original root is red [12, p.383]. The past tense rendë is formed by simple nasal-infixion of this root, so this past tense is actually wholly analogous to quentë as the regular past tense of quet (to say, speak). However, as Quenya evolved from primitive Elvish, the evolution of thi word is the following: red > rez > rer. But in the past tense remains form rendë, as the nasal infix shielded the original d from the preceding vowel. Other verbs that may belong to this category include hyar (to cleave), ser (to rest) and nir (to press, thrust), because they are derived from roots syad, sed, nid [25]. One attested form that would belong in this category is lendë (went) as the past tense of the verb to go, travel. The form lendë emerges by nasal-infixion of a base led.

Especially interesting in this regard is the verb ulya (to pour): "poured" in the transitive tense (man poured the water into the cup), is ulyanë with the normal past tense ending -në added to –ya (a regular form); “poured” in the intransitive sense (the river poured into the gorge) is ullë. The ending -ya is suppressed and the past tense is formed directly from the stem ul. Unfortunately, we do not have enough information to tell if that regularly occurs, though one more example can support it: farya (to suffice) - farnё.

There are some verbs that show no nasal element in the past tense. The past tense is formed by lengthening of the stem-vowel and adding the ending -ë. The past tense of lav (to lick) is lávë. The negative verb um (not be or not do) likewise has the past tense úmë. However, most words formed from verbs in this manner are not past-tense forms, but abstract nouns. For instance, sérë connects with the verb ser (to rest), but sérë is a noun"rest". The past-tense formation represented by words like lávë and úmë is unusual.

The verb "to be": The principal forms of this verb are ná (is), nar or nár (are), né or nánë (was), nér (were), anaië (has been) and nauva (will be); imperative na or ná (be!). With pronominal endings this verb may appear as násë (he/she is), nás (it is); otherwise the regular pronominal endings are added to na: nanyë (I am), nalyë (you are), etc. The past tense "was, were" would be similar, only with the vowels e, é where the present tense has a, á: nenyë (I was), nelyë (you were), etc.

The Adjective

Many Quenya adjectives end in the vowel a: laica(green), númenya (western),vanya (fair),morna (black), melda (dear, beloved). There are also a number of adjectives ending in –ë: carnë (red) or varnë (swart). Relatively few adjectives end in a consonant: firin and qualin, two different words for "dead".

Adjectives agree in number with the noun they describe. Adjectives in -a have plural forms in -ë, adjectives in -ë or in a consonant have plural forms in -i, and adjectives in -ëa have plural forms in -ië: vanya vendë (a beautiful maiden) > vanyë,

vendi (beautiful maidens), carnë parma (a red book) > carni parmar (red books),laurëa lassë (a golden leaf) > laurië lassi (golden leaves),firin casar (a dead dwarf) > firini casari (dead dwarves) [27].

An intensive or superlative form of the adjective is derived by prefixing an an-: calima (bright) - ancalima (most bright) [3, p.279]. The independent word lil (more) from an early source may be used to construct the comparative form, though this source describes an early variant of Quenya [25]. The same source mentions a combined comparative/superlative form in -lda, but whether it was still conceptually valid in LotR-style Quenya is questionable.

The Participle

The present or active participle describes the condition you are in when you do something. In English present participles are derived from the corresponding verbal stems by adding the ending -ing. The corresponding Quenya ending is -la. There are many examples of it in the Markirya poem. For instance, the participle falastala (foaming) is derived from a verbal stem falasta (to foam). If the stem-vowel is not followed by a consonant cluster or another vowel, it is lengthened: hlapu (fly) - hlápula. Basic verbal stems like sil- may be turned into "continuative stems" with long vowel and final a: síla- before the participal ending is added, so "shining" may be sílala. But the connecting vowel may also be i, with no lengthening of the stem vowel: itila (twinkling, glinting) [15, p.363].

The past or passive participle describes the condition you enter if you are exposed to the action of the corresponding verb or the condition you are in after having completed the action described by the verb. In Quenya most past participles are derived from the corresponding verb with the ending -na or -ina. The past participle of car (make) is carna (made). If the stem ends in l, the ending -na is dissimilated to -da: mel (love) - melda (beloved).

 

 

 

The pronoun

In 2007, the journal Vinyar Tengwar presented some of Tolkien’s late ideas on the pronouns. Quenya pronouns typically appear as endings directly suffixed to a verb or noun, not so often as independent words, as in English. Examples from Namárië are the words máryat( -rya – her) and hiruvalyë ( -lyë – thou).

Quenya pronouns distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural. The first person plural/dual forms distinguish inclusive we from exclusive we, depending on whether the party addressed is included in we or not. The second person singular has a distinction between a formal, polite you and a more intimate, informal or familiar you, thou. The following endings may be added to verbs (this listing is mainly based on Vinyar Tengwar #49, p.16, 51:

• 1st person sg: -nyë (I), often in short form –n
• 2nd person sg. formal/polite: -lyë (you, thou), often in short form –l
• 2nd person sg. intimate/familiar: -tyë (you, thou)
• 3rd person sg. -s (he, she, it)
• 1st person pl inclusive: -lvë /-lwë (we)
• 1st person pl. exclusive: -lmë (we)
• 2nd person pl. –ldë (plural you)
• 3rd person pl. –ltë/ntë (they)
• 1st person dual: inclusive -ngwë and exclusive –mmë (we, two of us)
• 2st person dual: -stë (you,  two of you)

The endings listed above may also be added to prepositions: milyë (in you). But independent pronouns may also be used following a preposition: imbë met (between us). In addition to the independent pronouns, Quenya also possesses longer pronouns that are used for special emphasis. Near the end of Namárië, we have the words nai hiruvalyë Valimar (be it that thou shalt find Valimar or may ypu find Valimar). This is then repeated with an emphatic pronoun replacing the ending -lyë for thou: Nai elyë hiruva (be it that thou shalt find it).

As we see, the emphatic pronoun is derived by prefixing e- to the corresponding pronominal ending -lyë, yielding elyë as an emphatic word for thou. This seems to be the general principle. The possessive endings perfectly correspond to them, only taking the final vowel -a instead of -ë:

• 1st person sg: -nya (my)
• 2nd person sg. formal/polite: -lya (your, thy)
• 2nd person sg. intimate/familiar: -tya (your, thy)
• 3rd person sg: -rya (his, her, its)
• 1st person pl. inclusive: -lva/-lwa (our)
• 1st person pl. exclusive: -lma (our)
• 2nd person pl: -lda (your)
• 3rd person pl:–lta/-ntya (their)
• 1st person dual: incl. -ngwa and excl. –mma (our,of the two of us)
• 2nd person dual: -sta (your, of the two of you)

The forms with possessive endings are inflected like normal nouns.

Relative pronouns: the word i, similar to the article "the", may be used as a relative pronoun "who": i Eru i or ilyë mahalmar ëa (the One who is above all thrones) [22, p.305]. Another relative pronoun is ya, which is attested with various case endings: The plural locative yassen (wherein) appears in Namárië, and also dative yan (to whom).

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4. Sindarin as a linguistic phenomenon

Sindarin or Grey-Elven is the language, generally akin to Quenya, for it was the language of those Elves who had not passed over Sea to Valinor during the March but lingered on the coasts of Middle-earth. Their tongue had changed with the changefulness of mortal lands and had become far estranged from the speech of the Elves of Valinor. After the coming of the Noldor Sindarin underwent several changes and adopted some forms from Quenya [23, Appendix F]].

4.1 Phonology of Sindarin

Due to the same ancestory of Quenya and Sindarin, the phonology of these languages is quite the same, though Sindarin has some differences which are presented in the following material. For the rest material see Phonology of Quenya.

Sindarin alone possessed the fronted u, more or less as in u French lune, more front than in English brute. It was partly a modification of o and u, derived from older diphthongs eu, iu. For this sound y has been used (as in Old English). When y occurred between two consonants it was pronounced as i in English fill: Emyn (hills).

Long vowels in stressed monosyllables are usually marked with the circumflex, since they tended to be specially prolonged: compare Dúnedain with dûn.

The vowel A. An a occurring in the final syllable of a word usually turns into ai in the plural. This also applies when the final syllable is also the only syllable (in such words we often see long â): tâl (foot), pl. tail, cant (shape), pl. caint, barad (tower), pl. beraid [19, Appendix]. In words of a particular shape, a in the final or only one syllable becomes e instead of ai. In the plural forms, a may first have become ei as usual, but then the final element of the diphthong was evidently lost leaving only e that simply remained unchanged later. In a non-final syllable, a becomes e in plural forms, as is seen in some of the examples already quoted. 
 

The vowel E. The behavior of this vowel is quite simple. In the final syllable of a word, e turns into i: edhel (Elf), pl. edhil; ereg (holly-tree), pl. erig; malen (yellow), pl. melin [12, p.386]. This also goes for monosyllables, where the final syllable is also the only syllable: certh (rune), pl. cirth [21, p.396]. In the case of long ê, we also find long î in the plural: hên (child), pl. hîn [21, p.403].If there is another i immediately before the e in the final syllable, the group ie simply becomes i in the plural: Miniel (Minya, Elf of the First Clan), pl. Mínil [21, p.383].

The vowel I. There is only one thing to say about this vowel: in the plural it does not change at all, whether it occurs in a final or a non-final syllable: Ithron (Wizard), pl. Ithryn. After all, the vowel-shifts seen in Sindarin plurals are ultimately due to i-umlaut. The Sindarin form of Silmaril, Silevril, is seen to cover both singular and plural: Silevril (Silmaril), pl. Pennas Silevril (the History of the Silmarils).

  The vowel O. In the final syllable of a word o becomes y in the plural; long ó likewise become long ý: orch (orc, goblin), pl. yrch, 
toll (island), pl. tyll [12, p.394]. If there is an i before the o in the final syllable, that would be iy in the plural is simplified to y: thelyn as the pl. of thalion (hero) [12].

The vowel U. Short u, whether in a final or a non-final syllable, in the plural becomes y: tulus (poplar), pl. tylys [12, p.395]. However, long û in a final syllable or in a monosyllable becomes ui instead; hence the adjective dûr (dark) hence Barad-dûr (Dark Tower) appears as duir when modifying a plural.

The vowel Y. As far as we can imagine, this vowel (long or short) cannot change in the plural. A word like ylf (drinking-vessel) covers plural form as well.

 In Sindarin the diphthongs are ae, ai, ei, oe, ui and au.  
Other combinations are not diphthongal. The final au is written as aw. The diphthongs were pronounced in the following way: ae and ai as in English rye, ei as in grey, oe as in boy, ui as in ruin and au as in loud.