Sindarin as a linguistic phenomenon

DH in Sindarin is usually related to d: galadh (tree)

QU does not occur in Sindarin

TH represents only the voiceless th of English thin [23, Appendix E].

The combinations ng, nd, mb suffered various changes: mb became m in all cases, but still counted as a long consonant for purposes of stress and is thus written mm in cases where otherwise the stress might be in doubt; ng remained uchanged medially and changed initially and finally where it became the simple nasal, as in English sing; nd became nn except the position at the end of fully accented monosyllables (thond, Morthond) and before r (Andros). This nd is also seen in some ancient names derived in old period: Nargothrond, Gondolin, Beleriand. In the Third Age final nd in long words had become n: Ithilien, Rohan, Anórien.

In Sindarin, at a certain period of time, consonants underwent such changes that are called mutations. These mutations were of 5 types: soft mutation, nasal mutation, mixed mutation, stop mutation, liquid mutation. Now let’s examine every type of mutations briefly.

Soft mutation is the most frequent type, also known as lenition (softening). This change occurs after particles ending in a vowel when the particle immediately precedes a word and is closely associated with it. The article i triggers this mutation. Nasal mutation is triggered by the article in. This type of mutation is less frequent than soft mutation but it can be found quite often. Mixed mutation sometimes is similar to soft mutation, sometimes to nasal, sometimes both of them present. Stop mutation is the type of mutation when words in t, d become followed by h and the preposition e. Other consonants just add these prepositions before them and undergo no changes in themselves. Liquid mutation concerns the liquids l, r that at one point changed plosives to spirants. In the table that you can see in the Appedix2 we have tried to present all the cases of these mutations on every consonant of Sindarin.

The stress patterns in Sindarin are the same as in Quenya except the fact that we should note that dh, th, ch are single consonants and represent single letters.

 

 

 

 

 

4.2 Grammar of Sindarin

The noun

In the fictional timeline, the Sindarin noun originally had three numbers: singular, plural and dual. However, we are told that the dual form early became obsolete except in written works [3, p.427]. On the other hand, a so-called class plural developed, coexisting with the "normal" plural.

As in most languages, the singular is the basic, uninflected form of the noun. Tolkien noted that the Sindarin plurals "were mostly made with vowel-changes" [17, p.74]. For instance, amon (hill) becomes emyn (hills); aran (king) becomes erain (kings). There are a few English nouns that form their plurals in a similar way: man pl. men, woman pl. women, goose pl. geese, mouse pl. mice etc. Yet English usually relies on the plural ending -s. In Sindarin, the situation is the opposite: the trick of changing the vowels is the usual way of forming the plurals, and only a few words display some kind of ending in the plural. The rules for these vowel-changes are the same for both nouns and adjectives, so we will also quote adjectives among the examples as we explore the Sindarin plural patterns. Ultimately, the vowel-changes go back on so-called umlaut phenomena.

Umlaut  or "changed sound" is an important feature of Sindarin phonology; the Sindarin term for this phenomenon is prestanneth, meaning disturbance or affection. It has to do with one vowel "affecting" another vowel in the same word, making it more like itself, in linguistic terms assimilating it. The umlaut is relevant for the plural formation Tolkien referred to as "i-affection" [21, p.376], since it was a vowel i that originally triggered it. The traces of it can be seen in contemporary Sindarin, though the final vowels disappeared.

The category of number. Special ai-plurals. Diphthongs later becoming monophthongs. The diphthong ai is normally unchanged in the plural. However, in one small group of words, ai becomes either i (usually long î) or more rarely ý in the plural. For instance, the plural form of the noun fair (mortal man) is given as fîr [20, p.387].

One important change that occurred in the evolution of Sindarin was that final vowels were lost. Hence an old word like ndakro (battle) later became ndakr. Another example is makla (sword) later appearing as makl.There are a few cases of final -gh turning into a vowel. One example is fela (cave) from phelga. There are also a very few adjectives. An adjective thala (stalwart, steady, firm) from sthalga.

Singulars derived from plurals. In the vast majority of cases, the singular must be considered the basic form of the noun, from which the plural is derived. However, there are a few cases where it is actually the plural that is the basic form, and the singular is derived from it. Historically, fileg (small bird), pl. filig, is such a case. The stem philik [11, p.381] came out as filig in Sindarin, but since so many plural forms have i representing singular e in the final syllable, the word filig was taken as such a plural form and a singular was made according to the normal pattern.

Beside the normal plural, Sindarin also has a so-called Class plural, or a collective plural. In the Road Goes Ever On, p.74, Tolkien states that "the suffix -ath (originally a collective noun-suffix) was used as a group plural, embracing all things of the same name, or those associated in some special arrangement or organization. So elenath (as plural of êl, [irregular] pl. elin) meant the host of the stars”, ennorath (the group of central lands, making up Middle-earth), Periannath (the Hobbits, as a race). If the ending -ath is added to a noun ending in -nc or -m, they would for phonological reasons change to -ng- and double -mm-, respectively, whereas final -nt and -nd would both become -nn-: ranc (arm), lam (tongue), cant (shape) would evidently be rangath, lammath, cannath, respectively.         

In some cases, other endings than -ath seem to be used, such as -rim (people): Nogothrim (Dwarves). Yet another ending is -hoth (folk, host, horde):. Dornhoth (the Thrawn Folk, Dwarves)".

The category of case

As far as we can tell from what has been published, the Sindarin noun is not inflected for a great number of cases, as in Quenya. Their common ancestral tongue of Quenya and Sindarin was apparently a case language, but in Sindarin the relevant endings have been lost. Grey-elven depends on prepositions instead of case endings. It is noteworthy, though, that Sindarin nouns can be used as genitives without changing their form: Ennyn Durin Aran Moria (Doors of Durin, King of Moria), the names Durin and Moria functioning as uninflected genitives. The King's Letter provides more examples: Aran Gondor (King of Gondor), Hîr i Mbair Annui (Lord of the Western Lands), Condir i Drann (Mayor of the Shire). Tolkien noted that these uninflected genitives probably descended from "inflexional forms" [21, p.370].          Sometimes one or both of the nouns in a genitive phrase is somewhat shortened: double consonants may be simplified: compare toll (isle) with tol in Tol Morwen (Morwen's Isle) [21, p.296]. Long vowels may be shortened: dôr (land) and dor in Dor Caranthir (Caranthir's Land) [18, p.183].

Not only the genitive, but also the dative can be expressed by a Sindarin noun that does not in any way change its form. This is evident from the first part of Gilraen's linnod in the Lord of the Ring, Appendix A: Onen i-Estel Edain (I gave Hope to the Dúnedain).

The adjective

Typical adjectival endings are -eb, -en and -ui: aglareb (glorious), brassen (hite-hot), uanui (onstrous, hideous). However, many adjectives have no special endings, and the word-form as such sometimes belongs to more than one part of speech: morn (dark) can be both adjective and noun, just like its English gloss.

Adjectives agree with their nouns in number. It seems that adjectives form their plurals following patterns similar to the noun plurals.

In the Peoples of Middle-earth, p.358, Aran Einior is translated the Elder King. Einior is our sole example of the comparative form of the adjective; the uninflected form is iaur.

The verb

Generaly speaking, there are two main categories of Sindarin verbs. As in Quenya, we can speak of derived verbs and basic verbs. The first, and larger, class consists of verbs that were originally formed by combining a primitive stem with some ending, such as -na, -ia, -da/-tha/-ta/-na (depending on the phonological environment), -ra or -a. Since all of these verbs end in -a, this class can also be termed the A-stems. The other, smaller class consists of verbs that come directly from a primitive stem with no suffixes. Since this category of verbs has present-tense stems in -i-, they may also be termed I-stems.

In many forms, Sindarin verbs (derived or basic) take endings for number and person. Sindarin, like Quenya, adds the ending -r to verbs with a plural subject: gyrth i-chuinar (dead that live) in [3, p.417] plural is cuinar. Other endings denote various persons. Known pronominal endings include -n for i, -m for we and apparently -ch or -g for you.

Derived verbs

The conjugation of the derived verbs (A-stems) seems to be fairly straightforward, for the most part involving simply a series of suffixes.

  The infinitive is formed with the ending -o, displacing the ending -a: bronia- (endure) > bronio (to endure), esta- (call, name) > esto (to call, to name), linna- (sing) > linno (to sing).

The (3rd person singular) present tense is identical to the A-stem itself: bronia- (endure) > bronia (endures, is enduring), esta- (name) > esta (names, is naming), linna- (sing) > linna (sings, is singing).

The plural or pronominal endings mentioned above are added to this form.

 

The (3rd person singular) past tense of this class of verbs is in most cases formed with the suffix -nt: bronia- (endure) > broniant (endured),esta- (call, name) > estant (called, named),linna- (sing) > linnant (sang).

Again, plural or pronominal endings may be added, just like in the present tense. If so, the suffix -nt becomes -nne- before the ending follows: broniant (endured) > bronianner (they endured), broniannen (I endured), broniannem (we endured), etc.

  The future tense is formed by adding the suffix -tha to the stem: bronia- (endure) > broniatha (will endure), esta- (call, name) > estatha (will call, will name), 
linna- (sing) > linnatha (will sing).

Again, plural and pronominal endings can be added, following the same rules as in the present tense. As in the present tense, the ending -n for I causes the final -a to become -o instead.

The imperative is formed with the ending -o, displacing the final -a. In this class of verbs, the imperative is therefore identical to the infinitive. The imperative in -o covers all persons, hence the form is the same no matter whether the command is directed to one person or to several people. One Elf cried daro! (halt!) to the entire Fellowship as they were entering Lórien.

  The active participle is an adjective derived from a verb, describing the condition one is in when carrying out the action denoted by the verb. In Sindarin, the active participle of derived verbs is formed by means of the ending -ol, displacing the final -a of the verbal stem: bronia- (endure) > broniol (enduring), linna- (sing) > linnol (singing).

There is also another active participle that may be termed the perfective active participle. In meaning it is similar to the normal active participle in -ol described above, except that it does not describe the state of someone (something) that is carrying out the action of the verb; it describes the state of someone already having carried out this action. It seems to have the ending -iel, displacing the final -a of the stem (or in the case of verbs in -ia, this whole ending):

esta- (call, name) > estiel (having named),hwinia- (whirl) > hwíniel (having whirled),linna- (sing) > linniel (having sung).

Other derived verbs than the ones in -ia may show simple umlaut when the ending -iel is added. If so, the vowels a and o both become e: awartha- (abandon) > ewerthiel (having abandoned), banga- (trade) > bengiel (having traded), 
dortha- (stay) > derthiel (having stayed).

Verbal stem with the vowels e or i would not be affected by the umlaut: critha- (reap) > crithiel (having reaped), ertha- (unite) > erthiel (having united).

Verbs with a diphthong would not change, either: eitha- (insult) > pl. eithiel (having insulted), gruitha- (terrify) > pl. gruithiel (having terrified),  
baugla- (oppress)" > pl. baugliel (having oppressed).

The last of the participial forms we know anything about is the passive participle (or past participle), an adjective describing the condition of something or someone that is (or has been) exposed to the action of the corresponding verb: If someone sees you, you are seen. "Seen" is actually irregular; in most cases, English forms its passive participles by means of the ending -ed (e.g. killed from kill). Sindarin normally forms its past participles with the adjectival ending -en added to the 3rd person singular past tense. Since derived verbs form their past tenses in -nt, the corresponding passive participles end in -nnen representing -nten (Sindarin phonology demanding that the cluster nt becomes nn between vowels): egleria- (glorify, praise) > egleriannen (glorified), esta- (call, name) > estannen (called, named), harna- (wound) > harnannen (wounded).

In form, the past participles coincide with the 1st person past tense: gostannen could also mean I feared, egleriannen is also I glorified, etc. The context must decide how the form is to be understood.

In some cases, where the corresponding verb is intransitive, the past participle may describe the state that the one performing the verbal action is in having completed it. For instance, one who goes will thereafter be gone. In a similar manner, the past participle of an intransitive verb like lacha- (flame) > lachannen may perhaps be used to describe a fire having flamed. But in Sindarin, it may be better to use the perfective active participle instead.

Unlike the active participles, the past or passive participle has a distinct plural form (used when the participle describes a plural word). This is formed by altering the ending -nnen to -nnin, combined with I-umlaut throughout the word. As usual, the effect of this is that the vowels a and o, where they occur, are altered to e: rnannen (ounded) plural hernennin, ostannen (eared, dreaded) plural gestennin.

Notice that the ending -a in the verbal stem itself, here the final -a of harna and gosta-, is also umlauted to e: in the plural, -annen always becomes -ennin.

The vowels e and i are not affected by the umlaut: innen (sung) > pl. linnin, erthannen (united) > pl. erthennin [34].

The last form of the verb that we know anything about is the gerund, actually a derived noun, the verbal action considered as a "thing". In English, gerunds are derived by means of the ending –ing. In English, the gerund and the active participle cannot be distinguished by their form; both end in -ing. However, while the participle has an adjectival function, the gerund is a noun, and in Sindarin, the two are distinct also in form. All derived verbs, or A-stems, form their gerunds by means of the ending -d: bronia- (endure) > broniad (enduring, the act of enduring, endurance), ara- (tell) > narad (telling), ertha- (unite) > erthad (uniting). It seems that gerunds are often used where English would have an infinitive instead.

 

 

 

 

Basic verbs

The conjugation of the basic, endingless verbs (aka primary verbs) is somewhat more complex than that of the derived verbs.  The infinitive is formed with the ending –i: fir- (fade, die) > firi (to fade, to die), gir- (shudder) > giri (to shudder),  
ped- (speak) > pedi (to speak). This ending causes the vowels a and o to umlaut to e: blab- (flap) > blebi (to flap), dag- (slay) > degi (to slay), tol- (come) > teli (to come) [34].

Some verbs inevitably coincide in the infinitive, for instance, can- (call, shout) and cen- (see) would both have the infinitive ceni. The context must decide which verb is intended.

  The present tense of these verbs is formed in two different ways. The third person singular, that requires no further ending, is the same as the verbal stem, but in the case of monosyllabic verbal stems, the vowel becomes long: dar- (stop) > dâr (he/ she/it stops), fir- (fade, die) > fîr (fades, dies), tol- (come) > tôl (comes).

In the case of polysyllabic basic verbal stems (usually verbs with some prepositional element prefixed), there is no lengthening of the vowel, and the 3rd person singular present tense is identical to the verbal stem itself: osgar- (cut around, amputate) > osgar (cuts around, amputates) [34].

In all present-tense forms except the 3rd person singular, some ending is required, as outlined initially. These endings are added to a form of the verb that is identical to the infinitive, hence with the ending -i and umlaut where the verbal stem has the vowel a or o (while i and e are not affected in any way): fir- (fade, die) > firin (I die), tol- (come) > telin (I come), osgar- (amputate) > esgerin (I amputate).

In the case of basic verbs in -r, an -n is simply suffixed to the stem: dar- (top, halt) > darn (stopped, halted), gir- (shudder) > girn (shuddered), nor- (run) > norn (ran) [34].

When it comes to verbal stems ending in -b, -d, -g, -v, -dh, the nasal element denoting past tense would manifest as an infix instead of as a prefix. That is, it is not added to the final consonant of the stem, but inserted before it: had- (hurl) > pa.t. hant (hurled), cab- (jump) > camp (jumped), dag- (slay) > danc (slew).

Verbs of more than one syllable would have past tenses in -nn instead of -nd. Verbs with final -v may also be slightly special. In most cases, post-vocalic v would come from earlier b, so certainly these verbs at one point ended in -mb. But final mb became simple m in Sindarin. Hence, basic verbs in -v may have past tenses in -m, for -mb: lav- (lick) > lam (licked).

All past tense forms of the basic verbs, except for the 3rd person singular, are formed by adding -i- and the appropriate ending to the 3rd person singular itself: gir- "shudder" > girn (he/she/it shuddered) > girnin (I shuddered), girnim (we shuddered), girnig/girnich (you shuddered), girnir (they shuddered).

The example hant > hennin indicates that the connecting vowel i triggers the normal umlauts in the syllable before it, a and o both becoming e: dar- (stop, halt) > darn (he/she/it halted) > dernin (I halted) [34].

The example hant > hennin also illustrates another phenomenon: not all the final consonant clusters occurring in the past tense can remain unchanged when they are no longer final at all, but have become intervocalic because an ending has been added. The clusters -nt, -nc, -mp become -nn-, -ng-, -mm- instead: ped- (speak) > pent (he/she/it spoke) > pennin (I spoke), dag- (slay) > (he/she/it slew) > dengin (slew), cab- (jump) > (he/she/it jumped) > cemmin (I jump). The cluster nd, like nt, would become nn intervocalically: gwedh- (bind) > gwend (he/she/it bound) > gwennin (I bound). Final m (usually representing mb) would become double -mm-: lav- (lick) > lam (he/she/it licked) > lemmin (I licked) [34].

  As for the future tense, we must assume that the ending -tha is relevant also for this class of verbs, but obviously some connecting vowel is required. While we have no direct examples, analogy with other forms suggests that an i would be inserted before this ending. This i would cause the normal umlauts where appropriate. In short, the future tense of a verb of this class may be constructed by adding -tha to the infinitive form (see rules above): dar- (halt) > deri (to halt) > deritha (will halt), ped- (speak) > pedi (to speak) > peditha (will speak), tol- (come) > teli (to come) > telitha (will come).

 The imperative of the basic verbs is easily formed with the ending -o: dar- (halt) > daro (halt!), ped- (speak) > pedo (speak!), tol- (come) > tolo (come!). The active participle of this class of verbs would probably take the ending -el: dar- (halt) > darel (halting), ped- (speak) > pedel (speaking), tol- (come) > tolel (coming) [34].

 The perfective active participle seems to have the ending -iel combined with lengthening of the stem-vowel. The vowel i would simply become long í: fir- (fade, die) > fíriel (having died, having faded), glir- (sing) > glíriel (having sung), tir- (watch) > tíriel (having watched).

The passive participle of this class of verbs can be constructed by adding -en to the 3rd person singular past tense form (see rules above): dar- (stop) >  darn (he/she/it stopped) > darnen (stopped, halted), sol- (close) > soll (he/she/it closed) > sollen (closed), tir- (watch, guard) > tirn (he/she/it watched, guarded) > tirnen (watched, guarded). Again, when another vowel comes to follow them, final -nt, -nc, -mp, -nd, -m become -nn-, -ng-, -mm-, -nn-, -mm-, respectively. These passive participles in -en would have plural forms in -in, causing the normal umlauts (a and o both become e): dangen (slain) > dengin, hollen (closed) > hellin [34].

  Finally we have the gerund, the verbal noun that may also be used to translate English infinitives (see above). The gerunds of basic verbs are easily formed with the ending -ed: cab- (jump) > cabed (jumping), cen- (see, look) > cened (looking), tol- (come) > toled (coming).

The mixed conjugation

Some verbs that by their form would appear to be A-stems in effect sit on the fence between the two conjugations outlined above. A number of A-stems form their 3rd person singular past tense as if the final vowel did not exist; the past tense is formed according to the rules of the basic verbs instead. Our few examples suggest that this group includes most verbs with a single consonant before the final -a, as long as this consonant is not th or ch (representing earlier consonant clusters) [34].

Ignoring the final vowel and employing the same rules as for the basic verbs, we would arrive at past tense forms like the following: ava- (will not) > am (would not), brona- (last, survive) > bronn (lasted, survived), drava- (hew) > dram (hewed).