Шпаргалка по "История английского языка"

 1. OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR

 The Old English language was a synthetic (искусственный) language which means that all the principal grammatical notions (выражения) were expressed by a change of the form of the word in the narrow meaning of the term.

 The grammatical means that the English language used were primarily a) suffixation, b) vowel gradation and c) use suppletive forms.

 Old English was a highly inflected (измененный) language. The abundance (изобилие) of inflections (изменений) resulted from the fact that the paradigm of declension (склонения) and the paradigm of conjugation (обьеденений) were formed by grammatical categories and there was more than one declension in the system of declension and more than one conjugation in the system of conjugation due to the splitting of the once uniform paradigm in accordance (в соответствии) with the original structure of the word.

 General survey of the nominal system

 There were five declinable parts of speech in Old English: the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the numeral, the participle. The nominal paradigm in Old English was characterized by the following grammatical categories.

 As we can see, the paradigms of different parts of speech had the same number of grammatical categories but these parts of speech were different in the number of categories form composing (образовывая) a given grammatical category. 

 The noun.The Old English noun paradigm was composed (собрана) by the following grammatical categories: gender, number, case.

 Gender. The category of gender was formed by the opposition of 3 gender forms: muscular, feminine, neuter. All nouns inanimate things or abstract notions belong to one of the 3 genders. The correspondence between the meaning of the word and it’s grammatical gender being hard to trace. Some nouns denoting animals also referred to neuter. The grammatical gender didn’t always coincide with the natural gender of the person and sometimes even contradicted it, for instance, the wit’man (woman) was declined as muscular.

 The grammatical category of number was formed by the opposition of 2 categorical forms: singular and plural.

 It had 4 cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative. 

 3. CONTRASTIVE LEXICOLOGY Contrastive descriptions can be made at every level of linguistic structure: speech sounds (phonology), written symbols (graphology), word-formation (morphology), word meaning (lexicology), collocation (phraseology), sentence structure (syntax) and complete discourse (textology). Various techniques used in corpus linguistics have been shown to be relevant in intralingual and interlingual contrastive studies, e.g. by 'parallel-text' analysis (Hartmann 1997). Contrastive linguistic studies can also be applied to the differential description of one or more varieties within a language, such as styles (contrastive rhetoric), dialects, registers or terminologies of technical genres.

 Methods:

 1.Introduction

 As Bollinger points out in his book it’s not so easy to talk about different between words. To a bilingual it’s rather trivial that the same concept is lexicolized in different ways in his\her 2 languages. Similary to second/foreign language learners it’s part of their daily chore to improve their lexical competence.

 One of my earliest memories of 2d language learning is associated with a set of Finish  

 4. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION

 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland lies in north-western Europe, occupying the major portion of the British Isles. The country’s only land boundary is with the Republic of Ireland. Great Britain, consisting of one large island and a number of smaller ones, comprises England, Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. It is separated from the coast of Western Europe by the English Channel to the south and by the North Sea to the east. The northern and western shores border the Atlantic Ocean. Ireland lies to the west across the Irish Sea.

 The United Kingdom comprises Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Great Britain consists of England, Wales and Scotland. All these parts are governed by the central government in London. They have special administrations and certain cultural rights, but no own parliament (excluding Northern Ireland prior to 1970). Laws are commonly passed in parliament with separate acts for England and Wales, for Scotland, and for Northern Ireland. This differentiation is in part because both the Scottish and Ulster legal systems are substantially different from the English (and Welsh), and legislation must be tailored to conform those differences. Each of the four countries has its own traditions and style of local government.

 Northern Ireland

 Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts for local government purposes. The councils do not carry out the same range of functions as those in the rest of the United Kingdom. They are not planning authorities, but are consulted on some planning applications. Local government elections in Northern Ireland since 1973 have taken place every four years. At present each council is divided into 3 to 5 district electoral areas (Belfast has 9), which return 5 to 7 councillors (until 1985 there was greater variation in the number and size of districts). According to the Eurostat NUTS structure, Northern Ireland is divided into five units at level 3. 
 

15. ВЖИВАННЯ ФОРМ SUBJUNCTIVE I ТА SUBJUNCTIVE II

 The Subjunctive mood shows that the action or state expressed by the verb is presented as a non-fact, as something imaginary or desired. The subjunctive mood is also used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. In Modern English there are a few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive: Subjunctive I (the infinitive without TO) and Subjunctive II (Past Simple and Past Perfect forms of the verb TO BE). Subjunctive I or Present Subjunctive. In present Subjunctive the verb TO BE has the form BE for all the persons singular and plural, all other verbs have the same form (infinitive without TO) and don’t take ending –s in third person singular. The present Subjunctive denotes an action referring to the present or future. This form seldom used in modern English. It may be found in poetry and in elevated prose, it is also used in scientific language and in the language of official documents. The present Subjunctive also occurs in some set expressions. In American English the Present Subjunctive is also used in colloquial language.  Though all the world be false, still will I be true. God save!

 Subjunctive II or Past Subjunctive. In the Past Subjunctive the verb TO BE has the form WERE for all persons singular and plural. The Past Subjunctive is widely used in Modern English and occurs not only in literature but also in colloquial language. The term “Past Subjunctive” is traditional as in Modern English it doesn’t necessarily express a past action. In adverbial clauses of condition it denotes an unreal condition referring to the present or future. In other types of subordinate clauses it denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; thus it can refer to the present and to the past.  If I were you.  I wished, he were only mine. 

 27. ЧАСТИНИ МОВИ (САМОСТІЙНІ І СЛУЖБОВІ)

 General classification of the parts of speech

 We distinguish between notional and structural parts of speech. The notional parts of speech perform certain functions in the sentence. The notional parts of speech are:

 1) The noun – имя существительное

 2) The adjective – имя прилагательное

 3) The pronoun – местоимение

 4) The numeral – имя числительное

 5) The verb – глагол

 6) The adverb – наречие

 7) The words of the category of state – слова категории состояния

 8) The modal words – модальные слова

 9) The interjection – междометие  (lingvo = a word or phrase that is characteristically used in syntactic isolation and that usually expresses sudden emotion; expletive)

 The structural parts of speech either express relations between words or sentence or emphasize the meaning of words or sentences. They never perform any independent function in the sentence. Here belong: 1) the preposition – предлог; 2) the conjunction – союз; 3) the particle – частица; 4) the article – артикль.  

16.ВЖИВАННЯ КАУЗАТИВНИХ КОНСТРУКЦІЙ (have\ get something done)

 We use HAVE + object + past participle to say that we have arranged for someone to do something for us. E.g. We had new cupboards made by the carpenter. (We didn’t make them ourselves. The carpenter made them for us.)

 • Questions and negations of the verb HAVE are formed with DO\DOES or DID e.g. Did you have your car served ?

 • We can also use HAVE SOMETHING DONE to say that something unpleasant happened to somebody. E.g. Paul had his bike stolen yesterday. (= Paul’s bike was stolen)

 • We can use the verb GET instead of the verb HAVE only in informal conversation. E.g. You must get your hair cut this week.

 Present Simple                                    He paints the house. – He has the house painted

 Present continuous                            He is painting the house. – He is having the house painted

 Past simple   he painted the h – he had the house painted

 Past continuous   he was painting the h – he was having the h painted

 Future simple   he will paint the h – he will have the h painted

 Future continuous   he will be painting the h – he will be having the h painted

 Present perfect   he has painted the h – he has had the h painted

 Present perfect continuous he has been painting the h – he has been having the h painted

 Past perfect   he had painted the h – he had had the h painted

 Past perfect continuous   he had been painting the h – he had been having the house painted

 Infinitive                               he must paint the h – he must have the h painted

 -ing form    It’s worth painting the house – It’s worth having the h painted 

 14. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. Word order in an indirect question is the same as in a statement. An indirect general question is introduced by the conjunction IF or WHETHER. An indirect special question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct question. Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verb TO ASK. In more official style the verb TO INQUIRE is used If the person addressed is mentioned, the verb TO INQUIRE is used with preposition OF. This occurs in bookish style only. In rendering answers the verbs TO ANSWER or TO REPLY are generally used. 
 

 

18. WRITINGS IN MIDDLE ENGLISH

 The language existed in the form of several dialects.

 The Southern group of dialects represented by the descendants(потомок) of Kentish, West and East Saxon dialects of OE. The following literary documents exemplify(иллюстрирует) it: South-Eastern, or Kentish:

 Dan Michel's "Ayenbite of inwit" (Remorse of Conscience) 1340;

 William of Shoreham's "Poems" (early 14th century);

 "Poema morale" (anonymous) early 13 th c.

 South-Western: Layamon's "Brut" (it contains elements of the Midland dialect, too) 13 c.

 Midland, or central dialects are subdivided into: West Midland, where the best known literary works are: "William of Palerme" (romance, early 13 c); "Sir Gawaine and the Green Knight" (14 c) and East Midland, where such works were written as Peterborough Chronicle (a sequel to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) Robert Mannyng of Brunne's "Handlyng Synne" - about 1300 "King Horn" romance 13c;.

  The real masterpieces of the period written in London dialect are the works of J- Gower and G. Chaucer. Gower wrote in Latin and French, but his masterpiece is the long poem in English, "Confessio Amantis" (1390).

 Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), is recognized as one of England's greatest poets. He is best remembered for The Canterbury Tales. He also translated (1380) a number of meditative Latin works. Boethius's "Consolation of Philosophy" Pope Innocent Ill's "On the Misery of the Human Condition", the translation of which is lost but survives in part in the Canterbury Tales.

 Chaucer also wrote a satirical dream-vision, "The Parliament of Fowls" (1382), uThe Legend of Good Women", an unfinished series of nine so-called lives of Cupid's saints like Cleopatra and Dido, and "Troilus and Criseyde". "The latter, being",

 The Northern dialects developed from OE Northumbrian In the ME such works as Richard Rolle de Hampole's "The Pr: ke of Conscience" (14 a), Townley Plays (14 c.) and York Plays (early I: .) appear in this dialect.

 Scotland, separate though closely related with the English state at that time, developed a distinct dialect of English - Lowland Scots that has been significant as a literary language since the time of John Barbour's Bruce (1375) and the works of the 15th-century Scottish Chaucerians Gawin Douglas, Robert Henryson, and William Dunbar, whose poetry was notable for its satirical and epic qualities and its richness of language.

 John Barbour, (1316-1395), is often considered Scotland's first identifiable poet. While archdeacon of Aberdeen (1357-95) he wrote the national epic romance "The Bruce" (1375). TheLondon dialect gradually develops into the prevailing and officially recognized. 

 19.WORD-BUILDING IN MIDDLE ENGLISH

 Word-building in Middle English develops along the same lines as were found in Old English.

 The number of affixes grows, for some of the French suffixes become productive.

 The list of affixes that were productive in Old English is somewhat changed. What had the form –ere, -estre, -end, -en, -nis, -nes, in spelling and pronunciation they modified to –er, -ster, -nd,     -yng/ing, -ness, -th.

 Some of them being of Indo-European origin almost indistinguishable from the French suffixes:

 Carpeteer (carpenter), hostilier (hosteler), bakere (baker).

 The former semi-suffixes –lac, -scipe, -had, -dom turned into: -lock, -red, -hed, -shype/shipe.

 In Middle English they remained productive: we may find new words formed with them: kindred, thralldom.

 We can also see new coinages with former adjectives suffixes such as:

 -ede, -isc, -sum, -lic now –ed, -y, -en, -ish, -som, -less.

 The use of prefixes was a productive way of forming new words and their number exceeds that of prefixes in Modern English. Especially frequent they were with the verbs and nouns. The most frequent and important native prefixes are:

 Over-, a-, for-, fore-, on-, un-, with-, mis-, under-, ut- 

 Here are some examples of the use of the words coined in Middle English in “Canterbury Tales”: 

 For blood bitokeneth gold, as me was taught...( for blood indicates gold, as I as taught).

 And who so wole my juggement withseye

 Shal paye al that we spenden by the weye...( and who would contradict my judgement shall pay all that we shall spend).

 For what man that hath freendes thurgh Fotune

 Mishap wol maken hem enemys...(for when in happiness man has friends, misfortune will make them enemies).

 It is in the Middle English that hybrid formations appear – native prefixes and suffixes are added to borrowed roots and vice versa. This testifies that the borrowed words are very soon assimilated by the lexical system of the English language: unable, onavised (unadvised), uncerteynte ( uncertainty), uncurteis (uncourteous) or lovable. 

 20.ЕТИМОЛОГІЯ

 Etymology is the study of the history of words and how their form and meaning have changed over time. 

 For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages, and texts about the languages, to gather knowledge about how words were used at earlier stages, and when they entered the languages in question. Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences (вывод) about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.

 Even though etymological research originally grew from the philological tradition, nowadays much etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian.

 One of the earliest philosophical texts of the Classical Greek period to deal with etymology was the Socratic dialogue Cratylus (c. 360 BC) by Plato. During much of the dialogue, Socrates makes guesses as to the origins of many words, including the names of the gods. In his Odes Pindar spins complimentary etymologies to flatter his patrons.

 The study of etymology in Germanic philology was introduced by Rasmus Christian Rask in the early 19th century, and taken to high standards with the German Dictionary of the Brothers Grimm. The successes of the comparative approach culminated in the Neogrammarian school of the late 19th century. Still in the 19th century, the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche used etymological strategies (principally, and most famously, in On the Genealogy of Morals, but also elsewhere) to argue that moral values have definite historical (specifically cultural) origins where modulations in meaning regarding certain concepts (such as "good" and "evil") showed how these ideas had changed over time, according to which value-system appropriated them. The strategy has gained popularity in the 20th century, with philosophers such as Jacques Derrida using etymologies to indicate former meanings of words with view to decentering the "violent hierarchies" of Western metaphysics.